How can the bulk density of cement change? Kindly describe the factors responsible? What are the consequences of bulk density of cement on concrete? How to increase the bulk density of cement? Do you suggest to increase iron ore content in raw meal to increase cement density? What is the range of bulk density and specific gravity for ordinary Portland cement (BS 1997)?

The bulk density of a particular cement can vary due to compaction or due to chemical reactions with the atmosphere or any water the cement comes into contact with. If you specifically want to change the bulk density of freshly ground cement then you would need to adjust the chemical and mineralogical composition. Increased iron oxide would do this but the effects would be very slight. I would also expect problems with excessive coating and ring formation in the kiln. There are certain concrete applications where high density concrete is specified (eg radiation shielding). This is achieved by using heavyweight aggregates such as barium carbonate or sulphate rather than by increasing the bulk density of the cement itself. The bulk density of cement is around 1.5 tonnes per cubic metre.

We are getting very high free lime in clinker. Some times it goes up to 5 per cent. Normally it remains 2 to 2.5 per cent. We are firing 100 per cent South African and Chinese origin coal. Our kiln feed analysis is 95 -96 per cent LSF, 2.35 Silica Modulus, and 1.85 - 1.900 Alumina modulus. In clinker we get 92 per cent, LSF, 2.10 SM and 2.1 AM. We are using Duoflex burner of FLS. What is your opinion about the causes of free lime.

There could be a number of causes of the high free CaO content of your clinker despite the fact that the lime saturation of the clinker is only 92 per cent. The fineness of the kiln feed is one factr and also the contents of MgO and K₂O. If you can tell me those I will be in a better position to diagnose the problem.